While it is uncontroversial that all organisms have a good of their own, there are a variety of views regarding which organisms' good or interests people ought to care about. When a scientific effort fails to independently confirm the computations or results of a previous study, some fear that it may be a symptom of a lack of rigor in science, while others argue that such an observed inconsistency can be an important precursor to new discovery. Figure 5-3 shows how publication bias can result in a skewed view of the body of evidence when only positive results that meet the statistical significance threshold are reported. Cases where junior colleagues or graduate students believe that a senior researcher has usurped credit that they deserve are not uncommon. The effect size was much larger when the original study was replicated more faithfully (the first set of replications inadvertently introduced a change in the procedure). The Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences (2018, p. 20) concluded that it is impossible to identify a single, universal approach to determining [replicability]. As noted in Chapter 2, different scientific disciplines are distinguished in part by the types of tools, methods, and techniques used to answer questions specific to the discipline, and these differences include how replicability is assessed. Assessing Unpublished Literature. Science is a social activity, both influencing society and being influenced by people's values and . Historians are prone to view science as the accumulation of knowledge, stressing its archival aspect as a significant historical process worthy of special study. It is by no means an exhaustive list of issues of the types he discussed. Core values are the internal compass of fundamental principles that drive a persons life or an organization. Something's instrumental value fluctuates based on changes in the desirability of the end to which it is a means and whether alternative, more efficient, means are available. If restricting certain activities in an area or allocating resources to preserve species is justified, the justification must make appeal to the value of the species or the ecosystem. Beliefs and values determine our attitudes and opinions. As mentioned earlier, a wider analysis of all retractions of scientific papers found about one-half attributable to misconduct or fraud (Brainard, 2018). Not only is the obvious point made that scientists are members of society, and are therefore confronted by questions related to the social uses of science, a more controversial ethical claim is made by those who take issue with Rescher's disclaimer. Fewer than 2 percent of authors in the database account for more than one-quarter of the retracted articles, and the retractions of these frequent offenders are usually based on fraud rather than errors that lead to non-replicability. According to the inherent worth view, environmental entities have intrinsic value in virtue of having a good of their own or interests that people (valuers) ought to care about (Sterba 2001, Taylor 1986). If the work is a collaborative effort, involving researchers from different scientific disciplines, is it reasonable to expect all of them to vouch for the entire content of the paper? In a systematic review (see Chapter 7) of the drugs effectiveness, 23 clinical trials were reviewed; the statistical significance of 22 of the 23 studies did not reach the criterion of p < 0.05, yet the cumulative review of the set of studies showed a large effect (a reduction of 16% [3] in the odds of death among women of all ages assigned to tamoxifen treatment [Peto et al., 1988, p. 1684]). The federal policy requires that research institutions report all. The powerful methods that science offers for seeking knowledge about the universe then become personally accessible rather then a set of exotic tools available only to the members of an elite priesthood. Proponents of intrinsic value both subjective and objective believe that it is crucial to the justification for, and practice of, conservation biology. This is another reason for investigating outliers before rejecting them. But when you get home, remember that you genuinely value financial security for your family more than flashy material items. Unfortunately, these types of errors can be difficult to detect. FINDING 5-2: Efforts to replicate studies aimed at discerning the effect of an intervention in a study population may find a similar direction of effect, but a different (often smaller) size of effect. Both of these methods are commonplace, so neither researcher thought to mention the details of the mixing process (Harris, 2017). CONCLUSION 5-3: Because many scientists routinely conduct replication tests as part of a follow-on work and do not report replication results separately, the evidence base of non-replicability across all science and engineering research is incomplete. (This issue is discussed in chapter 4 in connection with the case study on the discovery of the structure of DNA.). Replicability is a subtle and nuanced topic, especially when discussed broadly across scientific and engineering research. prior probability (pre-experimental plausibility) of the scientific hypothesis. Whether arising from lack of knowledge, perverse incentives, sloppiness, or bias, these sources of non-replicability. The Monist 75, 138-160 (1992). (1992b). As he points out, the increasing administrative responsibilities imposed on scientists is an ethical issue, in and of itself, because it impairs a scientist's ability to devote his or her energies to the practice of science. You get the idea. Ultimately, understanding what people value is the secret to mastering people skills and succeeding in business or life. Morals are a system of beliefs that is taught for deciding good or bad as opposed to coming from within and are emotionally related for deciding right or wrong. The techniques, discussed below, are funnel plots, a p-curve test of excess significance, and assessing unpublished literature. Based on the content of the collected studies in Table 5-1, one can observe that the. For example, a 2015 article compared hypothesized effect sizes against non-hypothesized effect sizes and found that effects were significantly larger when the relationships had been hypothesized, a finding consistent with the presence of HARKing (Bosco et al., 2015). At the national level, he asks whether we are morally justified in committing such a large fraction of the federal research budget to space exploration at the expense of larger appropriations for the advancement of knowledge in medicine, agriculture and other fields of technology bearing directly on human welfare. In these situations, preservation, conservation, and assisted recovery goals are justified only if the organisms, species, or systems involved possess non-instrumental (i.e., intrinsic) value. Others have found some differences according to discipline (Grieneisen and Zhang, 2012). Replication of data analyses provided in 18 articles on microarray-based gene expression studies. Misuse of statistical testing often involves post hoc analyses of data already collected, making it seem as though statistically significant results provide evidence against the null hypothesis, when in fact they may have a high probability of being false positives (John et al., 2012; Munafo et al., 2017). However, in 2013, with access to Reinhart and Rogoffs original spreadsheet of data and analysis (which the authors had saved and made available for the replication effort), researchers reanalyzing the original studies found several errors in the analysis and data selection. Environmental Ethics 23, 57-75 (2001). Additionally, there are issues related to the manipulation and presentation of data, many of which are discussed in connection with the Millikan case study in Chapter 4. Mentioned as examples of the values that can distort science are attitudes regarding religion, race and gender. Schimmack (2012) has demonstrated that the proportion of statistically significant results across a set of psychology studies often far exceeds the estimated statistical power of those studies; this pattern of results that is too good to be true suggests that results were either not obtained following the rules of statistical inference (i.e., conducting a single statistical test that was chosen a priori) or did not report all studies attempted (i.e., there is a file drawer of statistically nonsignificant studies that do not get published; or possibly the results were p-hacked or cherry picked (see Chapter 2). 53 languages. Well known researchers or research institutions can use the sensationalism, which is as much a characteristic of science reporting as other types of journalism, to influence public opinion and governmental funding agencies. Show this book's table of contents, where you can jump to any chapter by name. According to the definition adopted by the U.S. federal government in 2000, research misconduct is fabrication of data, falsification of data, or plagiarism in proposing, performing, or reviewing research, or in reporting research results (Office of Science and Technology Policy, 2000, p. 76262). Here are the most fundamental ethics that people identify with: Relationships are scientifically proven to improve our happiness, health, and longevity. methods of assessing replicability are inconsistent and the replicability percentages depend strongly on the methods used. Examples of ethics and values issues in science In an essay entitled "The Ethical Dimensions of Scientific Research" (13) the widely published logician and philosopher of science Nicholas Rescher attacks the view that science is value free, and shows how ethical considerations enter into many aspects of the practice of scientific research. Unless otherwise noted, the discussion below focuses on the non-replicability between two results (i.e., a one-to-one comparison) when assessed using proximity and uncertainty of both results. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1991. Moreover, instrumental value is substitutable, replaceable, and compensatable. Use this master list of personal values to narrow down what matters most to you. Independent of this question concerning the social responsibility of the scientist, we believe that the introduction of ethical issues in the secondary school science curriculum should definitely include those related to the social uses, as well as the "doing" of science. Even a stark result in an exploratory analysis has to be interpreted cautiously, pending further work to test the hypothesis using a new or expanded dataset. People value a wide variety of things intrinsically (e.g., personal mementos, cultural and religious artifacts, ceremonies and rituals, accomplishments, performances, and historical sites) and they do so for a variety of reasons (e.g., for what an entity represents, what it embodies, its rarity, its history, or its beauty). For example, a person who values freedom and adventure probably spends much of their time and money on travel. When this principle is violated, significance testing, confidence intervals, and error control are compromised. Integrity, kindness, honesty, and financial security are typical examples of personal core values. To simplify, we can state that there are two main aspects of the values dimension in environmental policy. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, 2001. Steven Goodman, the codirector of the Meta-Research Innovation Center at Stanford University (METRICS), suggested that the focus ought not be on the rate of non-replication of individual studies, but rather on cumulative evidence provided by all studies and convergence to the truth. adventurous authentic committed compassionate concerned for others consistent courageous dependable enthusiastic fearless friendly good humored honest honorable independent kind loyal Professor John Ziman of the Imperial College of Science and Technology, London, one of the most influential writers on the practice of science, points out that definitions given by professional scientists, historians of science, philosophers of science, and representatives of other related disciplines tend to emphasize "different aspects of the subject, often with quite different policy implications. Core values are an individual or organizations fundamental beliefs and highest priorities that drive their behavior. This estimate ignores the variability in adult body weights, but the estimate is correct within 25% for most adults. High-quality researcher surveys are expensive and pose significant challenges, including constructing exhaustive sampling frames, reaching adequate response rates, and minimizing other nonresponse biases that might differentially affect respondents at different career stages or in different professional environments or fields of study (Corley et al., 2011; Peters et al., 2008; Scheufele et al., 2009). It is indeed the product of research; it does employ characteristic methods; it is an organized body of knowledge; it is a means of solving problems."(9). However, a successful replication does not guarantee that the original scientific results of a study were correct, nor does a single failed replication conclusively refute the original claims. Teachers' Reflections on Values Teaching The final point above is reinforced by a recent special edition of the American Statistician in which the use of a statistical significance threshold in reporting is strongly discouraged due to overuse and wide misinterpretation (Wasserstein et al., 2019). Unpublished but recorded studies (such as dissertation abstracts, conference programs, and research aggregation websites) may become easier for reviewers to access with computerized databases and with the availability of preprint servers. Therefore, replicability studies included as part of the scientific literature but not cited as such add to the difficulty in assessing the extent of replication and non-replication. The deletion of experiments using animals in school science laboratories, due to moral objections by teachers, students, parents or the community, is becoming an increasingly common occurrence. aFrom Cova et al. To search the entire text of this book, type in your search term here and press Enter. They assert that scientists, because of their special knowledge, and because of the support they demand from society, have a social obligation to concern themselves with the uses that society makes of science, and to help the lay public make informed choices about technological issues. He suggested the proper question is How efficient is the scientific enterprise in generating reliable knowledge, what affects that reliability, and how can we improve it?, Surveys of scientists about issues of replicability or on scientific methods are indirect measures of non-replicability. How does one determine the extent to which a replication attempt has been successful? This experience prompted the study and the report, Evolution of Translational Omics: Lessons Learned and the Way Forward (Institute of Medicine, 2012), which in turn led to new guidelines for omics research at the National Cancer Institute. 1 See, for example, the cancer biology project in Table 5-1 in this chapter. A book devoted to advocating the infusion of ethics/values into the teaching of science rests on the assumption that ethics and values play a significant role in science and that ignoring this fact will diminish a student's comprehension of the true nature of the scientific enterprise. Someone who values beauty will spend their money on clothing or makeup, while someone who values health will budget more for fresh food and supplements. Ethics of Wildlife Management and Conservation: What Should We Try to Protect? The most direct method to assess replicability is to perform a study following the original methods of a previous study and to compare the new results to the original ones. In most cases, the science establishment scorns the scientist who chooses to announce his or her findings via public media before they have been published in a peer- reviewed journal. The ethical concerns related to the use of human subjects and animals in research are the focus of Rescher's remarks about issues related to the methods of research. The original study replicated when the original procedures were followed more closely, but not when the Ebersole et al. There are costs associated with preserving species and effectively managing ecological systems, and there are alternative uses for managed spaces and management funds. As long as these differences are reported with the final results, these may be reasonable actions to take yet result in non-replication. Figure 1:Quotations on the Intrinsic Value of Species. Apart from specific efforts to replicate others studies, investigators will typically confirm their own results, as in a laboratory experiment, prior to, TABLE 5-1 Examples of Replication Studies. With the attribute of interest specified, one can then ask whether two results fall within or outside the bounds of proximity-uncertainty that would qualify as replicated results. Such a comprehensive effort would be daunting due to the vast amount of research published each year and the diversity of scientific and engineering fields. Others often see these values as your character traits. 31 labs attempted to replicate a study by Schooler and Engstler-Schooler (1990). But, we believe that a more important reason is our obligation as teachers to convey to our students the true nature of the human enterprise that we call science. Early generation of binary alloys was a simple system that showed high replicability (Quadrant A). Exploratory and confirmatory analyses are often described as two different stages of the research process. They understand, for example, that things happened yesterday, which will not reoccur, or that Christmas only happens once in a while (which seems like an eternity when you're a young child! FINDING 5-4: Comparing results across replication studies may be compromised because different replication studies may test different study attributes and rely on different standards and measures for a successful replication. One theme of Fostering Integrity in Research is that research misconduct and detrimental research practices are a continuum of behaviors (National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine, 2017). Subjective intrinsic value is created by valuers through their evaluative attitudes or judgments it does not exist prior to or independent from these. To illustrate how these characteristics can lead to results that are more or less likely to replicate, consider the attributes of complexity and controllability. & Sterelny, K. What is Biodiversity? As discussed above, new analyses of retraction trends have shed some light on the frequency of occurrence of fraud and misconduct. There are two prominent views regarding the objective intrinsic value of species and ecological systems: the natural-historical value view and the inherent worth view. While your childhood may have engrained some values in you, your thoughts and actions can also consciously form others. The first is ethics. Our point is not to deny that fraudulent behavior among scientists is unusual, but rather to emphasize the fact that scienceisthe product of human activity, and as such it inevitably involves a wide variety of value-laden choices and judgements, many of which have ethical dimensions. Exploratory and confirmatory research are essential parts of science, but they need to be understood and communicated as two separate types of inquiry, with two different interpretations. Distance. If you feel stuck trying to figure out what is best for you, honing in on your core values could help you: Your values are ultimately what drive your identity and your decisions. One error was an incomplete set of countries used in the analysis that established the relationship between debt and economic growth. The development of any alloy is subject to a highly controlled environment. The authors of this study reported that environmental standardization may compromise replicability by systematically increasing the incidence of results that are idiosyncratic to study-specific environmental conditions (Richter et al., 2009). , conservation biology may have engrained some values in you, your thoughts and actions can also form... 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